This essay will explore how religion, brought to Britain after four major invasions from the 5^th to the 11^th centuries, influenced the English language.

 

When writing Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle (Jennings, 2026), I had named one of my characters Wyrd, based upon the Old English word for ‘fate’ (Eagles, 2023, p. 211) for that was what I had made her the goddess of. Little did I know, a thousand years before, for the Anglo-Saxons, she was already one. In investigating wyrd, I discovered Urd, one of the Norns in Norse mythology, was its cognate, a word brought to the island during one of several Germanic incursions following the abandonment of Rome. Because Christianity remained steadfast within the country, wyrd, through time, evolved to become the direct forerunner to the modern English word ‘weird’ (Online Etymology Dictionary, 2025).

I wondered what other words had come to the shores of Britian, originating from an association to faith between the time of Constantine III (d.411 AD) taking his Roman troops from Britannia and the Norman invasion of 1066 under Duke William (c.1028-1087), which would become adopted and eventually become part of the English vocabulary. By using archival sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles and writers such as Bede, I will show how invading foreign religious words were adopted as the English language developed and grew. But to understand that, we also have to know early medieval British history and the four main incursions on the island.

The First Invasion: When the Romans left Britain in the early 5^th century, so did a sense of abandonment and a Romano-British identity that had been built up over the previous four hundred years. Urban centres declined with little or no central authority to replace them. Local industry collapsed, as did international trade that came with being part of an empire. As coinage disappeared, local bartering rose. Writing and education vanished alongside this, and the security of the island that Rome so efficiently managed finally ended (Bowden, 2021).

Whether the chieftain kings of lower Britain invited the western Germanic tribes in for protection against the Picts or it was simply a matter of a land grab now that Rome had departed is uncertain, but Anglo-Saxon Chronicles speak of the warlords Hengist and Horsa, once employed by the British King Vortigern, who, by 449 AD, now fought against him, sending word to their homeland describing “the worthlessness of the Britons, and of the excellence of the land” (Swanton, 2000 [1996], p. 12).

The Germanic peoples heard them, and a consistent migratory flow of Angles, Jutes, and Saxons, along with smaller tribes, colonised eastern and lower Britain. And they were ruthless. In 491 AD, a clan of native Britons sheltering in the abandoned Roman fortress of Pevensey Castle was besieged. Here, Ælle and Cissa simply “killed all who lived in there” (Swanton, 2000 [1996], p. 15). There were no survivors.

Native Britons suffered more and more from the wrath of the invaders as they became the dominant force and were soon forced into one of two choices: slavery or integration. Refugees pushed westward into Cornwall, Ireland, Mann, Scotland and Wales, all regions that even today still continue to hold on to a Celtic identity, whereas England’s character has remained Anglo-Saxon.

Things were so dire for the people on the island that Saint Gildas (c.500-570 AD) mentioned in his book The Overthrow and Conquest of Britain of a letter sent to Flavius Aetius (c.390-454 AD) during this time of hardship. Entitled the “Groans of the Britons,” the message is reputedly to have said, “The barbarians push us back to the sea, the sea pushes us back to the barbarians; between these two kinds of death, we are either drowned or slaughtered.” (Winterbottom, 1978, p. 24) There was never any recorded answer to the British plight.

By the end of the 6^th century, the invading Germanic tribes had occupied half of mainland Britain. With them came a polytheistic Germanic paganism, largely based on fertility, nature and warfare, along with all their associated mythological lore and their written language known as futhorc; a series of symbols, mostly straight lines, cut into hard surfaces such as bone, metal, stone and wood, allowing mainly for only practical and short communiques (Bragg, 2004, p. 10). South of Hadrian’s Wall, the land had also been divided up into several kingdoms — Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex denoting the settlements of eastern, southern and western Saxon tribes, Anglia named after the Angles, Mercia in the Midlands, and Bernicia and Deira to the north.

These Germanic tribes all spoke their own dialects, but would all eventually merge to become one religion and one language — a polytheistic Anglo-Saxon mythos and the development of what we now term Old English. So comprehensive was their destruction of the native Briton’s Brythonic language that less than 3% of Old English comprised any of their words and the few that remained were largely linked with nature, such as ‘crag’ meaning ‘rock,’ ‘pen’ meaning ‘hilltop,’ and several river names, including the Avon and the Thames (Bragg, 2004, p. 5). In comparison, in modern English, over 70% are words borrowed from other languages (Scheler, 1977, p. 74).

Another hint of this demographic replacement was the word ‘Welsh,’ derived from the Anglo-Saxon English word wealh meaning any speaker of a Celtic language, which included foreigners and slaves (Online Etymology Dictionary, 2025). Whereas modern Welsh is the descendant of a Brythonic language (Koch, 2006, p. 1757) today in Friesland they speak a dialect that is considered close to what Old English may have sounded like 1500 years ago (Winter, 2022).

Though it would have changed considerably since then, we can still recognise several of their words: dei meaning ‘day,’ froast meaning ‘frost,’ and grien meaning ‘green,’ to name just a few. In terms of faith, we find ‘church’ and the Frisian tsjerke, both have their origins in the Old English word cirice, which, when spoken aloud, phonetically sounds similar to the Frisian word. The basis for the Scottish and north English word ‘kirk’ also came from this, but is more similar to the modern Dutch word kerk (Hoad, 1993, p. 76).

The Second Invasion: From the east, at the very end of the 6^th century, the re-emergence of Roman Christianity crept back into Britain and from Ireland came an expanding Celtic-Christian Church under Columbanus (c.543–615 AD) which had already found its way into Scotland and northern England. In 597 AD, Augustine of Canterbury (d.604 AD), under orders from Pope Gregory the Great (c.540-c.604 AD) arrived in Kent. Sometimes called the ‘Georgian Mission,’ his task was to meet with King Æthelberht (c.550-616 AD) on a mission of conversion.

It is possible that Æthelberht was targeted for two reasons. The first and obvious one was that his wife, Queen Bertha of Tours (c.565-c.603 AD), already a devout Christian, allowed for an opening into Anglo-Saxon Britain. The second was that the Kingdom of Kent was a powerful region from the earliest days of the Germanic invasions. If Æthelberht could be converted, others would likely follow Rome’s version of Christianity rather than a Celtic-Christian one.

Bede the Venerable (c.673-735 AD), the ‘Father of English History,’ wrote in his book, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, “At that time Æthelberht, King of Kent, was a very powerful monarch. The lands over which he exercise his suzerainty stretched as far as the great river Humber, which divided the northern from the southern Angles… Some knowledge about the Christian religion had already reached him because he had a Christian wife of the Frankish royal family whose name was Bertha. He had received her from her parents on condition that she should be allowed to practise her faith and religion unhindered, with a bishop named Liudhard whom they had provided for her to support her faith.” (Bede, 2008, p. 39)

In an article written by Jack Morato (2015, p. 15), suggested that Gregory’s alarm over an impending rift between the two churches might not have been the only reason for the ‘Gregorian Mission,’ alleging that the pope might have been genuinely concerned for the welfare of the Anglo-Saxons. This assumption is derived from a tale within Bede’s Historia where Gregory encountered some enslaved Deiran children.

Before Gregory became pope, “[when] some merchants had arrived in Rome, a quantity of merchandise was exposed for sale [where] he saw some boys put up for sale, with fair complexions, handsome faces, and lovely hair. On seeing them [Gregory asked] from what region or land they had been brought. He was told they came from the island of Britian, whose inhabitants were like that in appearance. He asked again whether those islanders were Christians. He was told they were heathen [and] that they were called Angli. ‘Good,’ he said, ‘they have the face of angels, and such men should be fellow-heirs of the angels in heaven.’” (Bede, 2008, p. 70)

Gregory, fully aware of Anglo-Saxon paganism, was resolved to bring Christianity to Britain and, with it, an end to slavery. Evidence suggested that Gregory never forgot those English children for in 595 AD, after he became pope, Gregory directed his agent Candidus to use some proceeds from the papal estates in Gaul to purchase English slaves so they could be sent to a monastery for their salvation.

“We desire that, when you proceed with the help of our Lord Jesus Christ to the management of the patrimony which is in Gaul, you would be so good as to buy with the money which you will receive clothes for the poor and English boys who are seventeen or eighteen years old, that they may be given to God and educated in the monasteries; to the end that the money of the Gauls, which cannot be spent in our land, may be usefully spent in the place where it belongs. [] we desire you buy clothes for the poor [] I desire that a priest be sent with them, lest any sort of sickness befall on the way [] be prompt in carrying out these things diligently.” (Crossley-Holland, 2009 [1982], p. 182)

By 601 AD, Æthelberht had converted to Christianity and allowed for a church to be established in Canterbury, making it a Christian centre of Britain even to this day. From there, ecclesiastics went out to spread the Word of God throughout his kingdom and beyond. Eventually, the whole of southern Britain became Christianised under Rome (Morato, 2015, p. 17) and so, Latin words of faith, which in turn hid Greek, seeped into Old English, and the “layering” (Bragg, 2004, p. 8) of what would become modern English began. With the rediscovery of Christianity, so too began its marvels.

According to Ben Johnson (Historic UK, 2015) during the mid-7^th century, Cædmon (fl.c.657-684 AD) an uneducated cowherd stationed at Whitby Abbey in the Kingdom of Northumbria (a unified Bernicia and Deira), unable to sing and uneducated, would quietly depart the mead hall whenever the harp was passed around so not embarrass himself. One evening as he fell asleep among the animals in his care, he dreamt an angel had appeared before him, telling him to sing principium creaturarum — ‘the beginning of created things.’

Miraculously, Cædmon found he could sing, and, with the memory of the dream staying with him, allowed him to recall the holy verses for his mistress, St Hilda (c.614-680 AD) and members of her inner circle. When Cædmon could produce further religious poetry, it was decided that the gift was a blessing from God, and took vows to become a monk, learnt his scriptures and the history of Christianity, producing beautiful poetry as he did so.

Unfortunately, Cædmon’s Hymn was all that survived of his works, though he was credited with being the first Anglo-Saxon poet whose work had survived. Originally in Latin, likely for the ecclesiastical community, it has since been translated into both Old English and modern English. Below is the Latin version:

“Nunc laudare debemus auctorem regni caelestis, potentiam creatoris, et consilium illius facta Patris gloriae: quomodo ille, cum sit aeternus Deus, omnium miraculorum auctor exstitit; qui primo filiis hominum caelum pro culmine tecti dehinc terram custos humani generis omnipotens creavit.” (Plummer, 1961 [1896], pp. 259-260)

The following two versions are in Old English and its modern translation (Alexander, 1991, p. 12):

“Nu sculon herigean heofonrices Weard, Meotodes meahte ond his modgeþanc, weorc Wuldorfæder; swa he wundra gehwæs ece Drihten, or onstealde. He ærest sceop eorðan bearnum heofon to hrofe, halig Scyppend: þa middangeard moncynnes Weard, ece Drihten, æfter teode firum foldan, Frea ælmihtig.”

“Praise now to the keeper of the kingdom of heaven, the power of the Creator, the profound mind of the glorious Father, who fashioned the beginning of every wonder, the eternal Lord. For the children of men he made first heaven as a roof, the holy Creator. Then the Lord of mankind, the everlasting Shepherd, ordained in the midst as a dwelling place, Almighty Lord, the earth for men.”

And just like that, with the recruitment of the wealthy and the influential throughout Britain, Christian worship became integrated into the developing English language, never to be removed, for it brought back to those communities, largely illiterate since the abandonment of the Rome, a written and spoken language with books of exquisite décor, and a new way of living.

To the north, dated during the 8^th century, the stone Ruthwell Cross, then in the Kingdom of Northumbria, not only displayed events in the life of Christ but was also inscribed with a sophisticated futhorc poem. The Dream of the Rood, in which Christ’s last days are told from the perspective of the cross on which he was crucified, is displayed for all to see, demonstrating a clarity between idea and language.

In Old English, the first sentence reads, “Hwæt iċ swefna cyst secgan wylle, hwæt mē ġemǣtte tō midre nihte syðþan reordberend reste wunedon.” In modern English, it says, “Listen! I will describe the best of dreams which I dreamed in the middle of the night when, far and wide, all men slept.” (Crossley-Holland, 2009 [1982], p. 200)

Writing preserved language, and with writing came uniformity, a way a uniting a populace, but it also rode roughshod over those tongues and traditions that were passed down orally. Like all subjugators before them, such as Rome and the invading Germanic tribes, the written word and Christianity could not allow the losing side to keep a foothold, so words either integrated or were dropped. Soon writing became legitimised and the language of Christian faith within Britain became the primary authority of the soul.

In the north, Aidan of Lindisfarne (c.590-651 AD), an Irish Celtic-Christian priest, along with fellow Hibernian monks, had brought religious manuscripts across the Irish Sea, but the 24 letter alphabet was forced to absorb aspects of the English language as Greek and Latin did not possess letters for Old English sounds (Crystal, 1987, p. 203) and so language through religion was built on, refined, expanded and shared, becoming the alphabet we know today.

An example of this fusion of cultures are the four Lindisfarne Gospels, thought to have been produced during the 8^th century — the same time as the Ruthwell Cross. They were a mixture of Greco-Roman and Celtic-Christianity with the additional Anglo-Saxon language, today known as a Hiberno-Saxon style (Martinez, 2022). Coincidentally, it was also about this same time Bede was working on his tome, in a monastery at Jarrow, also in the Kingdom of Northumbria, once a hub for Celtic-Christianity doctrine.

Latin, once the language of academia and the ecclesiastical, was now being supplemented by the new growing native language once primarily used for more functional matters such as the charters, laws, and the daily grind of life in the early medieval British world (Bragg, 2004, p. 12). By the 11^th century, even the Lord’s Prayer had been standardised in Old English, such as the one found within the Wessex Gospels, under the care of Ælfric of Eynsham (c.955-1010 AD), an ecclesiastical scholar reputedly to be on par with Bede.

“Ure Fæder, ðu ðe eart on heofonum, sí ðín nama gehálgod. Tócume ðín ríce. Geweorðe ðín willa on eorðan swá swá on heofonum. Sęle ús tó-dæg úrne dæghwamlican hláf. And forgif ús úre gyltas, swá swá wé forgifað úrum gylten-dum. And ne lǽd ðu ús on costnunge. Ac álýs ús fram yfele. Sí hit swá.”

Spoken aloud, the above words can sound rhythmically similar to the modern English language and the Lord’s Prayer, though the actual translation in the order of the words are: “Our Father, thou that art in heavens, be thy name hallowed. Come thy kingdom. Become thy will in earth as in heavens. Give us to-day our daily bread. And forgive us our guilts, as we forgive our offenders. And not lead thou us into temptation. But release us from evil. Be it so.” (Cook, 1891, p. 59)

Even though the conversion of Christianity had taken hold, archaeological evidence, such as the dig at Sutton Hoo which began in 1938, demonstrated that perhaps people still edged their bets, as the burial site there and further afield contained both Christian and pagan artefacts in preparation of an afterlife (Gilley and Shiels, 1994, p. 25). Yet 500 miles to the north, in the late 8^th century, another invasion was about to begin, one which would challenge the English language for the next two hundred years.

The Third Invasion: “793 — In this year dire portents appeared over Northumbria and sorely frightened the people. [] A great famine immediately followed those signs, and a little after that in the same year, on 8^th June, the ravages of heathen men miserably destroyed God’s church on Lindisfarne, with plunder and slaughter.” (Crossley-Holland, 2009 [1982], p. 39)

For almost three hundred years, the Vikings raided Scotland and the border regions that split that northern country from England. It was the Danes though who landed with force, occupying great swathes of Anglo-Saxon lands and replacing them, keeping their own language and religion, threatening to do unto the Anglo-Saxon communities as they had done to the Romano-Britons only a few hundred years earlier.

The Lindisfarne monastery was destroyed by the Vikings, the jewels within their gospels ripped apart and worn around the necks of the victors, yet the Lindisfarne Gospels themselves survived. A year later, the Vikings returned to pillage the monastery at Jarrow and burnt down its magnificent library. These were places of great riches but low defences, and by targeting such places of authority and learning, it stated God was no longer on the side of the Anglo-Saxons.

In 865 AD, the Great Heathen Army, which became the presiding invading force, landed in East Anglia intending to occupy the country. At Chippenham, 878 AD, Alfred, King of Wessex (c.848-899 AD), was defeated by the Danes by breaking their truce and outflanking him. He escaped and went into hiding, sending out a call to any West Saxon men who refused to capitulate and were open to a new form of combat.

Alfred fought a guerrilla war, killing the enemy before they had time to react, then disappearing into the marshes and forests, but still he understood such tactics would only get them so far. A pitched battle would still have to occur, for the Danes would not surrender their new and fertile land unless they were forced to do so. In 878 AD, they met at Edington, where Alfred led his army uphill against an entrenched enemy.

“There [Alfred] fought against the whole army and put it to flight, and pursued it as far as the fortress, and stayed there a fortnight. [] Three weeks later King Guthrum with 30 of the men who were the most important in the army came [to him] at Aller, which is near Athelney, and the king stood sponsor to him at his baptism there.” (Cross-Holland, 2009 [1982], p. 41)

After Guthrum (c.835–890 AD) was Christianised, he took the name of Alfred’s deceased other brother, Æthelstan, and returned to East Anglia, where he reigned as king under that name until his death. After the war, a diagonal border was drawn up from the Thames to the old Roman road of Watling Street. To the north and east was the rule of Danelaw, and to the south and west was West Saxon. Only those trading goods could cross the line, but it was this commerciality which would also add to the English language, for the people on the shared island had to speak to one another, and clarity became paramount, for even then, money talked.

When the battles ended and the peace treaties were finally enacted, Alfred next took stock of the education of his people, for he saw it in ruins after the destruction of so many ecclesiastical buildings. As a result, he re-instituted scholarship and learning, and the Britons, largely because they were Christianised, were writing their words down on parchment or vellum, which allowed their language to be spread easily among the people and the country.

English not only survived the war against the Danes, but it also benefited. Where Danelaw existed, so too did the Norse language and religion. Runes, like futhorc, were used primarily in carvings on materials like metal, stone and wood, and the invaders’ words were adopted.

At 40, he studied Latin so he could better understand the teaching of the Roman church and had five Latin-inscribed books associated with history, philosophy and religion translated into Old English so his people could better understand them. He essentially created the first printing house, an idea unmatched anywhere in Europe. The undertaking was expensive, yet he did it and had copies sent to the twelve bishops scattered across his kingdom. Alfred would later be called ‘The Great’ and the ‘Saviour of England,’ even before England strictly became a unified country, but arguably, he went a long way in saving the English language.

“I [Alfred] remembered also that I saw, before it had been all ravaged and burned, how the churches throughout the whole of England stood filled with treasures and books; and there was also a great multitude of God’s servants [] they could not understand anything of them, because they were not written in their own language. Therefore it seems better to me [] for us to translate some books which are most needful for all men to know into the language which we can all understand [] until there are able to read English writing well.” (Crossley-Holland, 2009 [1982], pp. 219-220)

In Alfred’s own translation of Pope Gregory the Great’s Pastoral Care, written around 590 AD and brought to England by Augustine, the King of Wessex, in the preface, described his language as “Englisc” when denoting his tongue, perhaps even his identity, when explaining why he was translating the book from Latin (Sweet, 2025 [1871]). By doing this, he used Christian religious language as a rallying point for unity among his people.

When Æthelstan (c.894-939 AD), grandson of Alfred, took York from the Danes in 927 AD, he became the first Anglo-Saxon king to rule over the whole of England. However, almost one hundred years after Alfred’s death, the Danes attacked once more. At the Battle of Maldon in 991 AD, the Danes defeated the English and demanded Danegeld (a protection tax) on the Anglo-Saxons, forcing King Æthelred (c.968-1016) to flee to Normandy in 1013.

Though the Danes were once again in charge, the English language and faith was now more deeply rooted, protected by Cnut (c.990-1035), the Danish King of England, himself a Christian and a supporter of Wulfstan, Archbishop of York (d.1023). It was during this time that Ælfric, mentioned above, while penning the Lord’s Prayer, his contemporary Wulfstan was writing homilies between 1010-1016, blaming the lack of English faith for falling foul of God and, as punishment, He invited the Danes into their land.

“Understand also completely that the devil has deceived this people too much, and that there has been little faith among men, though they speak fair words, and too many crimes have gone unchecked in the land. [] Because with great deservings we have earned the miseries which lie upon us, and with very great deservings we must obtain the remedy at the hands of God if henceforth things shall become better.” (Crossley-Holland, 2009 [1982], p. 294)

Eventually an Anglo-Saxon king, Harold Goodwinson (d.1066 AD), his name hinting at his Danish heritage, would sit once again on the throne of England, but he would be the last to do so, falling to an enemy who sought to destroy the English language once and for all.

The Fourth Invasion: When Duke William landed on the British coast from Normandy, he went straight to Pevensey Castle — the very castle where the locals were massacred during the Germanic tribal invasion by Ælle and Cissa, almost 600 hundred year earlier — “on Michaelmas Eve. [] King Harold was informed of this [] and came against him at the hoary apple-tree. And William came against him by surprise. [] the king nevertheless fought hard against him. [] There King Harold was killed.” (Crossley-Holland, 2009 [1982], pp. 42-3)

With the death of Harold so too was it the near-death of the English language for with the rise of the Normans, came the rise of a new primary language, Old French, that, within in few hundred years, had killed off approximately 85% of Old English (Baugh and Cable, 2005 [1951], p. 49). ‘Hastings,’ made famous by the battle, is from an Old English word whereas ‘Battle,’ the actual site of the conflict, was a newly introduced Norman word.

“He [William] went inland with all his army [] and ravaged all the region that he overran until he reached Berkhamstead. [] Bishop Odo and Earl Williams stayed behind and built castles far and wide throughout this country, and distressed the wretched folk, and always after it grew much worse.” (Crossley-Holland, 2009 [1982], p. 43)

The coronation service that crowned William King of England on Christmas Day in 1066 was in both Old English and Latin, though William spoke only French the whole time, and under the new foreign feudal system that was introduced, British society was changed forever. Native language and identity were suppressed. French came to rule the church, the ruling class, entertainment, education, the law and the military — anything associated with governance. Castles and cathedrals were built purposely high above the local single-storied wooden buildings, displaying Norman power and status, proudly announcing that God was on their side.

In 1070, Lanfranc (c.1008-1089), a loyal supporter of William, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. He insisted that all English churches, including the church at York, its own Episcopal see since the days of the Celtic-Christianity, must surrender to his authority. Lanfranc also demanded a strict adherence to the Roman Catholicism, with loyalty to the pope above all else, an end to simony and nepotism, the enforcement of celibacy to strengthen moral authority and the provision of administration to the Crown and the development of great landownership. Lanfranc himself was given sole authority to deal with legal matters for the church and spoke on William’s behalf when the king was out of the country (Cowdrey, 2003, pp. 175-84).

In 1086, William commissioned the Domesday Book, of which there were two volumes. Written in Latin, its pages reveal that half the country lay in the hands of just 190 French nobles, and half of that was held by just eleven men. Not one of them spoke English (Bragg, 2004, p. 39). By this time, only Wulfstan, Bishop of Worcester (c.1008-1095) and nephew to the above-mentioned Archbishop Wulstan, was the last British-born member of the clergy to hold any position of power (Barlow, 1979, p. 57). From this, in terms of hierarchical language, Norman-French came first, followed by Latin for all its sacred and secular purposes, and last, in their own land, came English. And this pattern would continue.

Some 60 years after the Norman Conquest, a monk by the name of William of Malmesbury (c.1095-c.1143) would write, “England has become the habitation of outsiders and the dominion of foreigners. Today, no Englishman is earl, bishop, or abbott, and newcomers gnaw away at the riches and very innards of England; nor is there any hope for an end of this misery.” (Thomas, 2003, p. 56)

In 1154, Hugh Candidus, a monk at Peterborough Abbey (c.1095-c.1160) wrote, “He [William de Waterville] has made a good beginning. Christ grant that he may end well.” (Mellows, 1949, p. 139)

That, the last entry ever written entry in an Anglo-Saxon chronicle, was a continued marker of the Norman attitude toward the British, their language and their faith. But it would not stay dead.

English remained the language of the people, though it changed significantly with the additional French linguistic structure, to become virtually unrecognisable to the people of Britain pre-conquest. It would not be until the reign of King Henry IV (1367-1413) before English, or as we now know it, Middle English, would once again become the official tongue of the country. And it has continued to develop ever since.

Place names such as Alkham, Harrow-on-the-Sea and Weyhill give evidence of the once pagan sites that stood there, containing altars, sanctuaries and temples. Even today, the figures of old Germanic religious figures are modernised and used, such as Wayland the Smith in Rudyard Kipling’s Puck of Pook’s Hill (1902) (Gilley and Shiels, 1994, p. 25).

As we can see, from the origins of Germanic migrations came a language of various dialects before becoming unified under Old English and an Anglo-Saxon mythology. It was altered further by incorporating Greek and Latin through Christianity, and pushed forward by Alfred the Great, added to by the Danish invasions, to be almost completely overwhelmed by the Normans and their strict Catholic adherence. Those Old English words which still existed were either dropped, forced to convert, or were substituted with a more recent, doctrine-influenced term.

Below are some words that originated from varying faiths of invaders and occupiers from the 5^th to the 11^th centuries that we still use today, largely taken from the Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (Hoad, 1993) and the Online Etymology Dictionary (2025).

Abbess, originally OE. abbodesse, it later developed into abbotess, only for the word to be replaced by ME. abbese during the 1300s, taken from the OF. abbesse, from the L. abbatissa.

Bishop, from the OE. bisċop, from the L. episcopus, which came from the Gr. epískopos.

Christ, from the OE. crist, from the L. Christus from the Gr. khristos. It drove out the OE. term for Jesus, Hæland.

Devil, from the OE. deofol, from the L. diabolus, from the earlier ecclGr. diabolos.

Easter, thought to be derived from an Anglo-Saxon fertility goddess Ēastre, who was worshipped during a springtime festival, it was kept only because of it coinciding with the rising religion of Christianity and the Jewish festival of Passover, which was held during spring.

Friday was based on Frīgg, a Norse goddess of clairvoyance and motherhood, which became the OE. term Frīġedæġ, meaning ‘day of Frig.’

God, from the OE. god.

Heaven taken from the OE. Heofon.

Incubus, from the L. incubus.

January comes from the Anglo-F. Ieneuer, from the L. Ianuarius, meaning ‘the month of Janus’ named after the Roman god.

Kirk, prevalent in northern England and Scotland from c.1200s, originated from the ON. Kirkja. From c.1500s Kirkland is also known as ‘church land.’

Lamb, as typified by the paschal lamb, from the OE. lamb or lomb, was also used to describe a gentle or innocent young church member from just before the Norman invasion.

Mass (church) originates from the L. messa or missa to the OE. mæsse to the ME. masse.

Nun, from the OE. nunne, from the L. nonna.

Oblation from OF. oblacion directly from the L. oblationem.

Pope, from the OE. papa, from ecclL. of the same word, from the Gr. papas.

Quadragesima, another word for Lent, from the ME. Quadragesime from the L. quadragesima.

Reconcile, as in ‘Christ restoring sinners to Grace,’ from the OF. reconcilier, which is directly from the L. reconciliare.

Saint, from the OF. saint or seinte, replacing the OE. sanct, all of which originate from the L. sanctus.

Thursday came from ME. Thuresdai which came from OE. Þurresdæg, a contraction of ON. or Þunresdæg or Thor’s Day. Holy Thursday in ME. was Ascension Day — 40 days after the crucifixion.

Ubiquity, originally theological in terms of God’s omnipresence, comes from the L. ubiquitas from the earlier L. ubique.

Verse, OE., replacing an earlier OE. fers, from L. versus.

Wafer from the Anglo-F. wafre that would include the Eucharist bread by the 1550s.

Xmas, a shortened form for Christmas since 1755, was preceded by X’temmas first used in 1551, which came from the OE. Χp̃es mæssa from Cristes mæsse.

Yule, from the ME. yol, youle, from OE. ġeōl meaning Christmas or Yule.

Zeal, in the sense of faith and study, from the ME. zele from the OF. zel, directly from the L. zelus from the ecclGr. zēlos.

 

 

BIBLOGRAPHY

Alexander, M. (ed.) (1991) The Earliest English Poems. Penguin Classics, London.

Barlow, F. (1979) The English Church 1066-1154: A History of the Anglo-Norman Church. Longman, New York.

Baugh, A. and Cable, T. (1951 [2005]) A History of the English Language. Taylor & Francis, Abingdon.

Bede (2008) The Ecclesiastical History of the English People (translated by J. McClure and R. Collins). Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Bowden, Will (2021) The fall of Roman Britain: how life changed for Britons after the empire [online]. Available at https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/fall-roman-britain-empire-what-happened-why/ (Accessed 8^th December 2025).

Bragg, M. (2004) The Adventure of English. Hodder & Stoughton, London.

Cook, A. (1891) ‘The Evolution of the Lord’s Prayer in English.’ The American Journal of Philology, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 59-66.

Cowdrey, H. (2003) Lanfranc: Scholar, Monk, Archbishop. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Crossley-Holland, K. (2009 [1982]) The Anglo-Saxon World: An Anthology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Crystal, D. (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Eagles, M. (2023 [2020]) Old English Dictionary, 2^nd ed. The Choir Press, Croydon.

Gilley, S. and Sheils (eds.) (1994) A History of Religion in Britain. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.

Martinez, V. (2022) Hiberno-Saxon Style (Insular Art) [online]. Available at https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/arts-and-entertainment/hiberno-saxon-style-insular-art#background (Accessed 8^th January 2026).

Etymonline (2025) Online Etymology Dictionary [Online]. Available at https://www.etymonline.com (Accessed 8^th December 2025).

Gregory the Great (1890) Letter to Candidus, Presbyter: A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church (eds.) Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (trans.) James Barmby. W.M.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids.

Hoad, T.F. (ed.) (1993) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Jennings, M. (2026) Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle. Troubador Publishing, Harborough.

Koch, J. (2006) Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara.

Mellows, W. (1949) The Chronicle of Hugh Candidus. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Morato, J. (2015) The Making of the Medieval Papacy: the Gregorian Mission to Kent. Saber and Scroll Journal, Vol. IV Issue III, December 2015, pp. 6-33.

Plummer, C. (ed.) (1961 [1896]) Venerabilis Bede Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum. Oxford University Press, London.

Scheler, M. (1977) Der Englische Wortschatz: Grundlagen der Anglistik und Amerikanistik. Erich Schmidt, Berlin.

Swanton, M. (Trans. and ed.) (1996) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. Orion Publishing Group, London.

Sweet, H. (2025 [1871]) King Alfred’s West-Saxon Version of Gregory’s Pastoral Care. Routledge, Abingdon.

Thomas, H. (2003) The English and the Normans: Ethnic Hostility, Assimilation and Identity, 1066–c.1220. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Winter, C. (2022) Frisian [online] Available at https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-938?d=%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199384655-e-938&p=emailAy8xv1Kith4sk#acrefore-9780199384655-e-938-div1-1 (Accessed 11^th December 2025).

Winterbottom, M. (1978) Gildas: The Ruin of Britain. Phillimore & Co. Ltd, Chichester.

So it looks like the MFA is not happening. I didn’t get the funding. Disappointed to say the least. My dream just took a step further away. Still, I have to keep moving forward. I have the PhD to apply for towards the end of the year and my liaison at Lincoln University seemed to be quietly confident of me getting funding for my thesis. It was something we discussed for my MFA interview. New plan: finish writing the book I was planning for the MFA, of which I am 35,000 words in, with the first draft of 136,000 words already completed. My aim is Ulster University and the Open University. I will probably apply to Queen’s University, but with my thesis idea and their perchance for Irish nationalism alongside arrogance, I have little chance of getting in there. I’m hoping that having a second novel completed will offer me an opening. Failing all that, I think I will start a history degree, but alternate years between that and writing novels.

Two images sent to me by my publisher to help with my social media accounts. How amazing are they?

Perhaps someone can answer my question? I received a review for my book, which had nothing to do with my novel. Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle is a historical-fantasy with a good dose of adventure, not a book about the historical architecture within the city of Oxford. Did this person just AI review my title without actually reading the blurb or examining the cover? Very, very strange.

Another lovely review and another 5 stars for Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle. "A fantastic book and a gripping read. It is a thrilling blend of the supernatural, alternative universes, and real historical events, people, and secret societies. Drawing on ancient Irish legends, the First and Second World Wars, and life in Japan and Oxford, England, the story offers a rich mix of mystery, intrigue, and edge-of-your-seat action. I can't wait to see where the author takes the story, how these other worlds are explored, and how the main character develops in future books. With so much history woven together with real-life figures, it is an enthralling and captivating read from beginning to end. A genuine joy to read, I am already looking forward to the author's next book."

Well, it's official. I have just been awarded a MA in Creative Writing, with a merit grade, by Teesside University. I'm excited to see what happens next.

I was watching the post-apocalyptic series Paradise with my wife, watching the scenes that are set in the underground library, and it suddenly occurred to me, saddened me almost, to think that there would be no more new books to read for that community, no authors to invent stories that might change a generation or even just to entertain or inform. And what would happen to someone like me in that situation? Would I have to forget all I could accomplish?

Another two five-star ratings for Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle, this time on Amazon. I’m getting there, slowly but surely.

Novel written and released - done.

Master's degree - done.

Application for a MFA and PhD - done.

Let's see what the future brings.

A surreal moment. After studying for two years to complete my master’s degree in creative writing with Teesside University, I have just submitted my final project.

Another 5* rating on Goodreads for Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle. Frustratingly, there was no review, but I’m grateful to the subscriber who took the time to read it.

Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle - #67 in an Amazon chart for YA Modern and Contemporary Historical Fiction novels. I'll take that.

Another positive review for Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle.

What I appreciated most was the reflective tone of the story. It is not rushed or overly dramatic, but instead takes its time to explore the characters and their journeys. There is a sense of growth and self-discovery woven throughout, making it feel more personal than plot-driven.

The writing has a calm, thoughtful rhythm that allows you to settle into the story. It feels like a book you are meant to experience slowly, taking in both the atmosphere and the internal struggles of the characters.

By the end, I felt quietly satisfied. It is a story that focuses on depth rather than intensity, leaving you with a sense of reflection and appreciation for the journey.

What a wonderful review to receive on Goodreads concerning Oxford from one of our American cousins.

*****

Oxford: A Cardwell Chronicle is an intriguing and ambitious blend of historical fiction and speculative storytelling. Maurice Jennings sets the stage for a narrative that feels both grounded in history and expansive in its imaginative scope. What stands out most is the premise.

The combination of post–World War I tension, secret agents, and cosmic elements creates a unique and engaging foundation that promises a layered and high-stakes story. Aidan’s journey provides a strong entry point into the narrative, with personal discovery and hidden truths driving the story forward.

This sense of unfolding mystery keeps readers engaged and curious about what lies ahead. A compelling read for fans of historical fantasy and adventure who enjoy stories that merge real-world settings with imaginative and expansive ideas.

One of the most surreal moments of becoming an author is when people, strangers, ask me to sign a copy of my novel. I look at them, hold the book, know that I wrote it, write the words, and yet it does not feel real. I wonder if I will ever get used to it?

For my MA final project, I had to show the first several chapters of a high-fantasy novel. It is an idea I plan to follow up on for my MFA. For the academic examination of those particular chapters, my genre and prose, I had to investigate several iconic British and Irish authors like David Gemmell, Lord Dunsany, J. R. R. Tolkien, and Robert Holdstock. What surprised me the most was that C. S. Lewis was like-minded in where I drew my ideas for this specific project. Who knew? To be honest, I could not ask for a better iconic literary role model.

It is funny how things develop. I have published my book now (out on the 28th April) and a guy who used to teach me martial arts got in touch about wanting to write his own book. He has to go into hospital for a serious but routine operation, and he wanted to write it over his recovery period, which might be months. He was looking at apps and programs, worried about his grammar and spelling, and wondered if he was good enough to take on such a project.

What I said, what I would say to everyone, is just write the book. That is the hardest part. Things like grammar and spelling can be sorted out afterwards. There are plenty of programs out there to help with that. Just look up the basic layout of a manuscript and worry about the story and how it connects with readers. To me, for me, that is the most important aspect. Believe in yourself. Stick to your plan. Keep moving forward.

So where to now? Oxford is done and set to be released on the 28^th of April. My master’s degree is practically done. But it is important to keep moving forward. Foolishly, I assumed that applying for PhD funding was very much like what had occurred over the past several years, but I was wrong. The application for financial aid had to be submitted before Christmas, so now I am looking at an MFA in Creative Writing and Publishing.

The pros: 1) A novel has to be written (which I’ve already started). 2) It puts me in direct contact with publishers and literary agents. 3) It would allow me to become a lecturer. 4) It gives me time to apply for PhD funding. 5) By the end of the MFA, I will either have a traditional publisher, or I will have my second novel published again with Troubador. 6) Being called Associate Professor or Professor Jennings. How strange it is to even write those words.

The cons: 1) Another year before I can start my PhD, if I go for it, but at least the time won’t be wasted. 2) I can never be called Dr Jennings until I have a PhD.

At least my small dream of having a literary life won’t be for a lack of trying.

So, the rumours are true. Look what arrived at my door. Roll on the 28th April.

It must be real after all. I'm on Amazon

www.amazon.co.uk/Oxford-Cardwell-Chronicle-Maurice-Jennings/dp/1806342464/ref=tmm_pap_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&dib_tag=se&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.EXmWKXg3CsQsj2sVIoifDghtOCf3FmCDqSCwLnGw31kjoXhD2ReBpUHOFKoWEHX8bkAS1FyKw_WjvjcntLuBMwseRscDmodncbVNcOQQRck.zSDLgCqADo16znAc9dJp1MRK6AKKJIwNtWVfL7oOsiI&qid=1773864551&sr=1-1

I am truly lost about the direction I should take, factoring in my age. On the one hand, an MFA, which is only a year but expensive; on the other, a PhD, which is longer but comes with more prestige and is specifically geared towards research and lecturing. With an MFA, both things are also possible, after all, my own creative writing lecturer during my degree only possessed an MFA, but more and more universities are now asking for PhDs. Of course, there is a possibility of lecturing while undertaking a PhD. If I were still in my early twenties, I would go for the PhD as time would allow for it. I think my only course of action is to undertake an MFA, to follow the path I set before myself, and then go on to a PhD, but even as I write this, I am still unsure.

On the other hand, Oxford is now complete. The paperback and eBook are set for release on the 28^th April. I’m assuming the marketing will take place beforehand, specifically the four weeks leading up to its release.

So I finally got my wife to read my final assignment for my MA. Her response: I didn’t know you were so clever.

I’m not quite sure how to take that?

Just some of my books for my Creative Writing MA. Little did I know, when I first began my course that I would be examining early medieval British history as part of my final project. Thankfully I love history.

My thought of the day: as technology builds and becomes ever more powerful, does our sense of a national identity diminish to become one that is global?

Another merit score on my last assignment, but I really don’t know if the idea of a PhD is for me anymore. It would seem any primary sources outside of academia are not as good as an academic one. Facts are facts. It doesn’t matter where they come from. MFA it is then.

Book is estimated to be available from the end of May 2026. That is about the same time my MA ends. Exciting times ahead.

So, Writing Specialism assignment for my MA done - check. One more assignment (the final project) and that is my MA done. What next though - MFA or PhD? Book development started within Troudador Publishing - check. Let's see what the future holds.

So here I am during silly hours, working on my penultimate assignment, fixed around my writing specialism. The literary section is almost done. Now I just need to worry about the academic critical commentary that goes alongside it. My cousin once told me that when he was doing his MA, towards the end, he just couldn't wait until it was finished. I kind of feel that now.

Well, after a hiatus, I’m back. I should explain that when I started this blog, I was off work with a broken ankle. It was probably the best thing that happened to me. First Christmas in years that I fully encompassed. It allowed me to fully take on writing fully, to indulge my interests, start a blog and some social media, and finally, to study. But after Christmas, I went back to work. A lot less free time since also going back to studying for my MA. Then, when that particular module was completed, I threw myself into completing Oxford. So where am I now?

Oxford is done and sent to Matador Publishing. I am now awaiting word on want they think. After my summer break, I am now studying again. One more module and then my final project and my MA is complete. I think I’m on track for a merit, so my next option is, if I continue on for an MFA or a PhD. I’m a certain age now, and a PhD is several years. MFA is shorter and might still allow me to teach at the postgraduate level, but it focuses more on writing rather than academic research. Though to be honest, that appeals to me too.

I got asked the question about our favourite autobiography/biography in my MA class. I know I'm going to get lambasted for this, but I don't read autobiographies or biographies because, simply, I'm not interested. I really feel I need to explain all this better, but I just know I'm going to come across as shallow, but this is my personal view.

Everyone has a sob story. Everyone has been hurt, suffered loss, cast adrift, or whatever. You see it even on X Factor when they sing the song in memory of a budgie, they lost two years earlier or whatever. Life moves on; the world continues to turn. And yet, some feel the need (perhaps to fuel their arrogance or their publishers) to set their life stories to books for a price, to tell their tale of overcoming hardship when there are probably ten thousand people across the world with that same story, or worse ones, and no one will ever know their names. I have no doubt that if you could hear all the stresses, hardships, and worries of humankind, the world would be deafening.

You have the rags-to-riches story. I don't need the story. His/her life experiences aren't mine, but I would happily read how they got from poor to rich in ten easy steps. I don't need to hear about a person's life and the path they took to better themselves. I just need to know how they bettered themselves. I am a student of history, but all I want are the facts, the causality between the beginning and the end. I don't need the emotion behind events unless they are relevant to the historical content.

I read an amazing book, No Way Out, concerning Major Jowett holding a PB against overwhelming numbers of Taliban in Afghanistan. Think Rourke's Drift or the Alamo for those who are military minded. It was a fantastic story of bravery, brotherhood, and loss, but I didn't need to know about his life story; only what he did in that situation was what really mattered most.

(My wife reads autobiographies/biographies, but she'll admit she's nosy. Take out of that what you will, lol.)

I came across the piece when reading by Jalarth Benson, 2018, An introduction to group dynamics and process, in Working More Creatively with Groups, Milton: Taylor and Francis Group, when reading about writers in the community and their wellbeing, concerning The Anti-group Phenomenon. The oscillating tension between the approach-avoid, attachment-separation dynamics of the love and will polarities in human interaction means that groups can sometimes create more problems than they alleviate. Nitsun warns against an over-optimistic and idealizing view of groupwork with the formulation of his concept of the ‘anti-group’. 21 He asserts the anti-group is a broad term ‘describing the destructive aspects of groups that threatens the integrity of the group and its therapeutic development’. An introduction to group dynamics and process phenomenon is really ‘a set of attitudes and impulses conscious and unconscious that manifest themselves differently in different groups’ and has three main sources:

• Resistance to participation in groups stemming from distrust, fear, anxiety and dislike of groups.
• Aggression and hostility arising in the group that not only threatens interpersonal cohesion but is aimed destructively at the ongoing life of the group itself.
• Accelerating destructive processes that could not be contained in the usual way.

I have described a psychotherapy group meeting in Belfast at the height of the ‘Troubles’ that was composed of several disturbed and aggressive individuals who believed that the group opportunity was a substandard form of help and continually agitated for individual treatment. Their hatred and contempt for the group was hard for the beginning and untrained therapist to bear and when the premises in which the group met was destroyed by a fatal bomb explosion, a spiral of destructive forces was unleashed in the group that led ultimately to the complete breakdown and dissolution of the group. While the therapist could just manage the hostility of the group before the bomb explosion, the massive disintegration of the external environment seemed to activate an equally massive disintegration and fragmentation in the internal and interpersonal world of the group. The implosion of the group was an inevitable consequence of destructive anti-group forces amplified by the environmental trauma. In this example we can identify several determinants of anti-group behaviour:

• Poor selection of members – too many highly aggressive members.
• Poor preparation for group – not enough attention paid to members’ anxieties and distrust of the group modality including the misconception that group treatment is second best to individual work.
• Flawed development of the group.
• The group therapist’s lack of training and lack of support.
• Group operating in a situation of civic conflict.
• A sudden group crisis that could not be managed.

An anti-group dimension is a natural part of the development of all groups (see Chapter 2) and can be understood and managed and even transformed. The group worker who accepts that conflict is a central feature of group life and is attuned to aggressive and
destructive forces are much more likely to be able to manage and channel these processes than a worker who is frightened of conflict and seeks to avoid or deny their presence. Rather than endeavouring to inhibit the expression of conflict the creative group worker realizes that hostility is a sign of hope and anger, often initiates change, and prepares the way for forgiveness and reparation. The following chapters all contain useful suggestions and strategies for contextualizing aggression and utilizing and reframing the positive value of hostility.

All I could think was, welcome to Northern Ireland.

I came across this article in The Guardian, dated 30th December 2024, about the rewriting of classics for modern sensibilities. My first thought was, could they not write something original? Why not just write something new instead of directly stealing from a well-known novel? Then for the copycat author to stand smug and self-righteous at their virtue signalling.

One such book was James, a reworking of Huckleberry Finn by Percival Everett. It was the unofficial book of 2024, topping best-of-the-year lists and winning the prestigious US Book Award for Fiction, yet it still lost out on the Booker Prize. I have to wonder, was it because it held a slave within it? Like it or loathe it, Huckleberry Finn was considered to be one of the most significant novels in American literature. Hemingway considered it “the best book we’ve had.” It was also controversial and one of the most banned. A new edition, with racist terms removed, was published in 2011. The New York Times complained that “there is no way to ‘clean up’ Twain without doing irreparable harm to the truth of his work.” May I suggest those who don't like reading novels from their time shouldn't read it? Remind me what the Nazis did with the books that went against their doctrine.

Its success followed that of last year’s women’s prize-winning (at least it wasn't gender-neutral) Demon Copperhead by Barbara Kingsolver, a 550-page updating of Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield, which transported to the author’s home region of Appalachia during the 1990s opioid epidemic. As the supreme chronicler of social injustice, Dickens provided Kingsolver with “a masterclass” in how to use narrative to make readers care about a latter-day underclass (which used to be the working-class).

This trend for repurposing famous canonical works is set to continue into this year. Call Me Ishmaelle by the Chinese-British writer Xiaolu Guo transforms the American behemoth Moby-Dick into a feminist adventure starring a cross-dressing female sailor (sigh). Guo describes her novel as “a homage to an American master, but with transgressive twists.” All three of these masters were white men (sigh, sigh). Dealing with issues of race, social injustice, gender, and our relationship with nature, each of these reimaginings of 19th-century novels gives a new slant on the contemporary American crisis. Oh my God, why can't people stop attacking Western culture and look to other parts of the world?

Recent edited versions of novels by Roald Dahl, Agatha Christie, and Ian Fleming have met with similar accusations of censorship. That is exactly what it is: censorship. By rewriting, rather than simply removing offensive language or storylines, it doesn't confront problematic texts but rather buries it, instead of learning from it. By changing the perspective of a novel, marginalised figures can be turned into the heroes of their own lives, to paraphrase the opening line of David Copperfield. Everett rescues James from the racial stereotypes of Twain’s original, giving him back his proper name, depth of character, and literacy. “With my pencil I wrote myself into being,” James says. But they weren't the novels written by Charles Dickens or Mark Twain.

From Jean Rhys’s landmark postcolonial and feminist prequel to Jane Eyre, Wide Sargossa Sea, in 1966, to Sandra Newman’s Julia, a powerful retelling of Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four published last year, overlooked female characters are also being written into existence. Unsurprisingly, ancient myths have proved fertile territory for female-led reboots, with Margaret Atwood, Pat Barker, and Madeline Miller all going behind the battle lines of the Odyssey and the Iliad.

None of this is new. Shakespeare drew heavily on classical stories (Romeo and Juliet is based on Ovid’s tale of Pyramus and Thisbe). In turn, there are no end of Shakespeare-inspired offshoots. This is justified by saying, 'All storytelling is retelling,' which is true, but please try to come up with some originality. It goes on to say that returning to old books is not a failure of invention but a way of keeping the canon alive, but that is untrue, especially when modern political liberal values override the story. Whether the contemporary authors stick faithfully to the plot line (as Kingsolver does) or play fast and loose with the original (like Everett), they are unlikely to breathe fresh life into these characters and stories. The Guardian says, 'At their best, reworkings like James and Demon Copperhead are future classics in their own right.' Well, that remains to be seen, but I am pretty sure that most people really don't give a shit about liberal agendas. They want escapism, not morality lectures. It's no wonder the numbers reading novels are dropping.

I was shocked to learn that in a Guardian article by Kit de Waal, she quoted a 2016 paper, published by Dr Dave O’Brien of Goldsmiths, that it was estimated that almost half – 47% – of all authors, writers, and translators hail from professional, middle-class backgrounds, compared with just 10% of those with parents in routine or manual labour. This analysis, of the 2014 British Labour Force Survey, also identified that 43% of people working in publishing, including those in the influential editorial roles, were from middle-class origins, with only 12% from working-class backgrounds. Does that mean the talent pool in working-class backgrounds does not rise to the same levels as those from the middle-class or is it really all about networking? Perhaps self-publishing is truly the way forward. At least then I would be in total control in all aspects of my novel, such as when I published Meuric as an eBook, which I enjoyed.

What is the job of a writer? What do they do? For me, writers essentially create content for a designated audience with additional nuance for the reader. This can include advertising and marketing, book writing (including fiction and non-fiction), journalism, poetry, proofreading and copyediting, research, screen and scriptwriting, teaching, technical guides, and web design, to name just a few professions. It is estimated that jobs for authors and writers will grow 4% between 2021 and 2031.

Well, I did it again: I bought a book on a whim - The 39 Steps by John Buchan. My wife's not going to be happy (again). But then again, was it just a fleeting fancy? I have always been a fan of the movies and regularly wondered about the novel. I couldn't tell you why. It was just that old-fashioned spy caper with a mystery to solve. There's nothing fancy about it, but was popular enough to keep having remakes done, and I only just learnt that it was the first in a series. The author had a pretty interesting life also. A Unionist Scot, during his life he was a barrister, historian, journalist, novelist, politician, and he served in both the Second Boer War and the First World War, the latter in military intelligence. That was most likely the basis for his hero Richard Hannay and why he fled to Scotland in that first book.

An interesting thread today: how do you feel when you write? This is a pretty interesting thread for me. There is so much in the way of emotion, and as always, as probably most writers, all of it is internalised. Well, maybe my wife understands and my children to a slightly lesser extent. It reminds me of a book I'm reading at the minute, First You Write a Sentence by Joe Moran, which is almost like a philosophical discussion about being a writer.

For me, it is a passion, a drive, to get my voice out, to bring those story ideas I have whirling around in my mind to life. I can't tell you where it comes from. Certainly no one in my family is that way inclined. I feel joy as a story takes shape, but if I'm not careful, for me, it can become like a drug, and I would write all day to the detriment of everything else. I can't tell you the number of times I've received a stern word from my wife for running late because I was writing.

Writing comes easily. I don't mean to brag, but the issue for me is stopping; when enough is enough. I have my favourite themes, but I can just about write just about anything. In my BA I wrote a poem. Then I started thinking that I had to change it, tweak it, because that's what my tutor, whose speciality was poetry, wanted to see. It turned out that the first draft was my best work.

When I write, sometimes it feels like it is someone else penning the words, and that I am merely a vessel. When my wife reads my stuff, she can't believe it's me (I haven't decided yet if that's a compliment or an insult). I don't talk the way I write. That might be an interesting point for us to discuss later. 

Once I wrote a scene where I killed a character off in cold blood, and it affected me physically. On another occasion, I was in the kitchen, radio on, writing when my girlfriend (now wife) came in asking what happened to the station. At some point it had become static, and I was completely oblivious. I can become so single-minded that I've seen myself sit in the living room surrounded by my family, the TV on, and I could zone everyone out.

Funny story: I once wrote a battle scene in the kitchen, the big finale of my first novel, and all the while my daughter was telling me about her day, my wife was making dinner, and the music was blaring. I got it done and later found an American publisher (who lied about everything, but that is another story). So distancing myself from them, I sent my manuscript off to have it critiqued by someone independent. She remarked that that particular battle scene was one of the most exciting she had ever read. But to be honest, the damage was done, and I gave up writing for a number of years. I guess writing can also be heart-breaking.

It can also be frustrating. I have constant ideas. I can write. I'm not one of those smart literary people, but I think I can develop stories that capture people's attention and imagination. I believe that is where my strength lies, yet it doesn't matter how much praise I get for my work, I can't break into the world of authors. But then you see famous people promoting their most-likely-ghost-written, books I think to myself, it's not fair.

But I'll never stop. I can't.

Just read an article by the psychoanalyst D.W. Winnicott in Playing: a theoretical statement, who compares children playing and exploring the fantastical alternative realities with writing. Here are my two-pennies worth.

All writers play, but internally, especially when it comes to fiction. Think about characters, location, plot, twist, dramas and conclusions, and all of it without a sound, stored within our minds, twisting and turning, whereas children are free to express themselves with no real thought to self or ego. They display their story by action, while we write it after formulating the plot, exploring the fantasy of genre writing in relative silence (with copious amounts of tea). But maybe play is the wrong word. Maybe when it comes to writing, it is more like a game. When I write a historical piece, the game is how to conjoin all the facts with a fluid narrative. But it made me see the overlap between writing and playing. 

(I) When Winnicott called the child playing all-consuming, we might be called single-minded.

(II) Their playing takes in an exaggerated world, and so do our stories, but within the mind.

(III) The child gathers objects or outside influences to push a fantastic, alternative reality, and so do we. How many of our characters are based on real people? How many locations have we travelled to that have inspired our plots? Even the societies we have grown up in have directed our thoughts. I grew up in Northern Ireland, and I find a lot of my stories have both Irish and British influences, whether it be history, legends, people, or settings.

(IV) And lastly, Winnicott says that ego disrupts play, which is true. You watch as children grow, their playing fades away. Imagination is replaced by objects, and children become increasingly aware of societal pressures on how they are expected to behave. I guess writers are lucky in that sense, as all our fantasies are in hidden silence until we set words to paper. But our disruptive ego, I believe, comes from self-doubt. Is our writing good enough? Are the worlds we try to invent nonsense? Is the story palatable? I share all these fears, but what I do know is that the art of selling fantastical narratives has been around for thousands of years and will hopefully last for a few thousand more. Well... until AI replaces us all.

Recently I read two articles about writing about the self. The first was by Hunt, Celia & Sampson, Fiona (2005), Writing: self and reflexivity. To be honest, it was a long-winded piece talking about how to write an autobiography, about putting ego to the side, about the humanist view of things and its history right up to modern times, and the true version of the true self, and I came away wondering if this article was actually about writing or about philosophy and psychology. It wasn't until I read A Novelist on Writing the Self by Mridula Garg that things clicked. Her view was much more direct and simplistic. The first was you simply can't write a true account of yourself. Ego doesn't allow for it. Her second point was that the only way to be truly honest was to write a fiction around it; you hide your true self within words. But while reading the article, when Mridula called all writers amateur psychologists, I instantly saw the connection with the previous article, and it made me think, writers are amateur psychologists. We dictate what our characters do, what they say, and how they react.

I have just read an online article about Katie Ward and her mentorship under Hilary Mantel. A struggling novelist at 27, she had 43 rejection slips when on the 44th one, she was asked for her manuscript. And even that was turned down. How crushing that must have been; still, it is reassuring to know that even an award-winning author such as her had to fight for her place and show resilience. After speaking with a friend, she was put in touch with Hilary Mantel of Wolf Hall fame, who took her under her wing and bestowed upon her some structure in writing. Out of them all, I think the strongest lesson is to have belief in oneself, to keep going, and to have faith in one's work. To look at my life objectively, I'm a middle-aged guy for the first time trying to become a traditionally published author. What am I thinking?! I have even been told that I am too old to do anything new. But I'm lucky. My wife believes in me, my kids, and even my closest friends. So I'll never stop trying.

So I've been asked to complete a survey for my MA. Oh my God, I wish I had gone for the 14 months course and not the 2 years. I have sitting on my laurels for a few months now and it is just dragging on. Maybe because I've completed my new novel and my proofreading course, I'm just eager to get on with more things.

So I've sent my manuscript directly off to a publisher for the first time. Probably not a good idea not gaining representation, but we'll see. Just a shame I have to wait possibly up to six months for a reply.

Well that's my Proofreading and Editing course done with the College of Publishing and Media, finishing with a distinction. I'll probably have to wait until after Christmas, but hopefully it will lead to something within the writing world.

So ITV has gone and applied for an AI innovator with a wage anywhere between £80-95,000 to work on character development. Is that what the future is to be for writers? To be outsourced to a computer program, making passion, originality, nuance, inspiration, and role models for future generations a thing of the past. If Shakespeare were about today, would he too be replaced by AI? Would JK Rowling, Stephen King, and George R. R. Martin be in the same boat? How about Lisa McGee of Derry Girls fame? Or even Scott Frank, the screenwriter of The Queen's Gambit. All those books, movies, novellas, plays, poems, serials, and short stories to date — would you have seen or read them if they were written by a computer program? Would you have enjoyed them in the same way if you knew they came from a place of zero passion? Ultimately, I think this is all about money. Why pay for a writer when AI could do it in ten minutes? What does that say about our future? Who might be next? Actors? Will anything with a screen be computer-driven, and if you want to see a real person, you would have to travel to a stage play where they earn pennies? Will radio broadcasters be replaced too? All you would need is a few recordings of their voice, and that would be it.

Well, that's another no from yet another agent on my manuscript. I suppose in reality it is only a few compared with the number I have sent, and those who have answered have all been positive. In my genre of historical/fantasy, I suppose I do limit myself, but it's what I love to write. Disappointed but not disheartened would be a good way to describe my mood, but I have to be honest, I am quietly confident in my skills as an author and storytelling. Perhaps overly so, but there's no point undervaluing myself. I have nothing to lose.

It's amazing what book ideas you can get from history. I was listening to a podcast on BBC Sounds about the life of Sir Walter Raleigh (1553-1618) and during it the historians started to get excited about his wife Lady Elizabeth Raleigh, nee Throckmorton (1565-1647), and I thought to myself how about a historical biography into her life of a literary novel with her as the main character.

I listened to a podcast today on BBC Sounds about the life of Robert Graves. A poet of repute, one of the commentators, Professor Fran Brearton, mentioned that most people know him first through I, Claudius. I had a wee chuckle at that. That was exactly how I first learnt about Graves, but I had read it so long ago that I had completely forgotten about the book. I'm thinking now I should buy my youngest a copy for Christmas this year.

Well that's my two assignments for my fourth module in proofreading done. Got an A. Halfway now. Onwards and upwards. I actually fancy doing the copyediting course next. We'll see. On top of that, I'm still working away at my manuscript since my wife read it. You'd be amazed how many wee small mistakes we both missed. Beginning to think I'm going to have to create a twitter, sorry... X, account for this blog. Don't know if I could be overly bothered. A lot of idiots out there, but it might be a good way to meet like-minded people. Saw a post earlier of a woman who only got into writing in her mid-fifties. At 62, she got her first book deal. Well done to her. I wish I had taken a note of her name. Hope for me yet.

So I've started doing a Proofreading and Editing Course with the College of Media and Publishing. On assignment 04. Just hope the organisation isn't a con.

Well, that's three rejections from literary agents. Not completely unexpected, since they all must be extra diligent these days. Margins are always tight and it is a business after all. Agents do have to make a living. Still, it is always slightly deflating. But on a positive note, their replies were encouraging. Only another ten or so to go. On a segue, my wife finally finished reading my manuscript. She cried twice, didn't see the twist at the end and wants to read more. Kudos to me, I think, as she is quite a methodical reader. Now, all I need is that once chance.